Bronze Age Armor: An Overview

Achaean Bronze Armor: Dendra Tombs Insights

The first known instance of Achaean battle gear is linked to a bronze piece meant for shoulder defense, unearthed in Dendra’s tomb 8. This artifact, dating back to the periods LH I and LH II (1550-1500 BC), was initially mistaken for a helmet but later correctly identified as a guard for the right shoulder. Remarkably, this item was found on its own, without accompanying armor, leading to several theories:

The complete armor set might have originally been placed in the tomb but was subsequently removed;
The solitary placement of the guard might have been symbolic, representing the full armor set;
The guard could have been part of an armor set made from a less durable material that has since decayed.

Delving into the rich tapestry of Bronze Age armor reveals a fascinating array of protective gear, among which the study of bronze greaves offers a unique glimpse into the craftsmanship and martial strategies of ancient warriors.

We lean towards the third theory, given the prevalent practice in later periods of incorporating metal elements into armor made of other materials. Moreover, the notion that the armor in tomb 8 included a metal component only on the right shoulder aligns with the fact that warriors typically favored their right hand in battle, necessitating enhanced protection for that side. This theory is bolstered by the discovery of a similar metal shoulder guard in an Etruscan grave in Italy.

Further supporting this idea is an artifact from Thisbe, Boeotia – a seal stone dated to LH II (circa 1500 BC) that depicts a warrior, standing beside a woman, wearing a lightweight breastplate with a prominent right shoulder guard. Although the authenticity of the Thisbe seal stones, part of a “treasure of seals,” is debated, the images they depict are significant and likely reflect actual armor designs.

Considering all this evidence, it seems likely that the armor was a combination of perishable materials reinforced with a single bronze shoulder guard.

Another significant Achaean armor find, also from Dendra but in tomb 12 and dated between LH II and LH IIB (1450-1400 BC), includes a complete bronze set with various components:

Two bronze torso plates, each about 1 mm thick;
Two bronze shoulder guards, similar yet distinct from the one in tomb 8;
Two curved bronze pieces under the shoulder guards for upper arm protection;
Two bronze triangular additions on the shoulder guards for extra chest protection;
A bronze neck guard;
Six bronze belts, three front and three back, attached to the bottom of the breastplate.

These pieces all have small holes around their edges, about 2 mm in diameter, likely used for attaching a leather lining, as indicated by leather remnants found within. There are also traces of goat hair seam thread between some holes. Larger holes, about 4 mm across, near the edges of each piece, were probably for connecting the plates using leather laces.

Reconstructions suggest that despite its robust appearance, this armor was flexible and suitable for both infantry and chariot combat. While effective with sword and spear, its design with large shoulder guard wings might have limited its use with bows or javelins. Experiments with a replica demonstrated that the shoulder guards and additional plates were mainly for defense against close-range weapons like swords or daggers, rather than spears.

A notable aspect of this armor is the asymmetry in the armholes, with the right one being larger to allow more movement, indicating a design favoring right-handed warriors. This, combined with the presence of shin guards and a single arm guard, suggests that the Dendra armor was intended for active ground combat rather than just ceremonial or chariot use.

Achaean Armor: From Dendra to Nichoria

A masterful and fully functional replica of the Dendra armor has been expertly recreated by Dimitrios Katsikis. This impressive reproduction was showcased in 2018 at the EUREKA exhibition at the Athens Museum near the Acropolis. Dimitrios Katsikis’s exceptional website, HELLENIC ARMOURS, offers a chance to delve into this and other reconstructions.

Some academics have theorized that the Dendra armor could have been designed for chariot drivers, as depictions from the Near East sometimes show them with more substantial armor than infantry warriors. However, no definitive proof from the Dendra tombs or Achaean artistic depictions supports this hypothesis.

The complete Dendra armor set weighs between 15 and 18 kilograms (33 to 40 pounds). Analyzing the breastplates and a skeleton found in the tomb, it seems the Dendra warrior was about 1.75 meters (5 feet 8 inches) tall with a slender build, weighing around 60-65 kilograms (140 pounds).

A key visual representation of a warrior in “Dendra” style armor is seen on a pottery piece from Mycenae, dated to LH IIIA or LH IIIB (1350-1300 BC). The image shows a warrior with a cuirass, featuring substantial neck protection and possibly adorned with four horizontal strips. These strips could be either decorative or part of the armor’s structure. A fallen sword in the scene suggests combat, but it’s unclear if the warrior is on foot or in a chariot.

This evidence points to the active use of “Dendra” style armor in battle, not just by chariot operators.

Additionally, a Mycenaean krater fragment from around LH IIIC (1200 BC) shows a soldier in a cuirass with a “Dendra” style neck guard. The vertical strips might be decorative or indicate segmented armor. The depiction’s bronze coloring helps visualize the armor’s components.

A fragment from Tiryns, dating between LH IIIB2 and LH IIIC (1250-1200 BC), depicts two charioteers wearing rigid neck guards. However, the fragment’s condition and simplistic artistic style limit further detail.

In a similar vein, a fragment from another Tiryns krater, around LH IIIB2 (1250 BC), shows a soldier in a cuirass with a “Dendra” style neck guard.

Significant Achaean armor findings also come from the Kadmeia, Thebes’s Achaean citadel in Boeotia, dating from LH IIIA/B2 (about 1350-1250 BC). Found in the palace’s “Arsenal” storage or annexes, these bronze pieces include:

Smaller shoulder guards than those in Dendra, without the broad chest and back “wings.”;
Two upper arm protections connected to the shoulder guards, with small holes for interior lining and larger ones for leather laces;
Two triangular breast shields, only with small holes, suggesting they were part of a non-metallic cuirass reinforced with bronze;
44 band sheet fragments, with holes for attaching to each other or a torso cuirass;
A partially intact bronze cuirass from Thebes, lacking shoulders and part of its side, with a unique fastening system and edge design compared to Dendra.

These elements from Thebes hint at a possible Achaean armor configuration with a torso cuirass, shoulder guards, and varying numbers of belt plates. A Linear B ideogram associated with the armor and a bronze war bracelet from Thebes suggest the inclusion of arm guards and greaves.

The bronze strips and breast protections from Thebes indicate a potential segmented armor made of perishable materials reinforced with bronze. This might have included shoulder guards, upper arm protections, and belts, as inferred from the Linear B ideogram near the armor drawing.

The bronze plates unearthed in Thebes may not have been used to cover the entire armor. Instead, it’s conceivable that a non-metallic cuirass was strengthened with these bronze plates, strategically placed over the chest and shoulder blade areas, and supplemented with shoulder guards and belts.

Andrea Salimbeti and Raffaele D’Amato undertook an in-depth study and reconstruction of these three types of armor based on the findings from Thebes. Their work, illustrated by Igor Dzis, was featured in an article in ANCIENT WARFARE VOL. III ISSUE 3 during June and July of 2009.

Excavations in a tholos tomb at Nichoria in Messenia revealed about 117 bronze plate fragments, dating from LH IIIA to LH IIIB2 (roughly 1370-1250 BC). These pieces likely formed part of a segmental armor. Many plates exhibit outward-rolled edges and small holes, 1 to 2 mm in diameter, evenly spaced along the edges for attaching to a perishable lining. The cleanly punched holes suggest careful craftsmanship, with some holes placed next to the edge, indicating they were made after a lining was already in place.

Some fragments have larger, more irregularly placed holes, possibly made by the warriors themselves to customize the fit. Also discovered were robust bronze wires, possibly used to connect different parts of the armor, though their exact purpose remains speculative.

Additionally, small staples were found embedded in the tomb’s floor, with ends bent inward. Some of these still had bronze plate fragments attached, suggesting they were used to connect bronze pieces together. This finding aligns with similar discoveries in other locations, like Tomb V at Knossos, initially thought to fasten layers of ox hide. However, these staples from Nichoria were more likely used in constructing segmental armor.

The scattered location of these armor fragments in the tomb, some embedded in the entrance wall, implies that the armor was removed early in the tomb’s history. It might have belonged to an early ruler interred there.

Bronze body armor was valuable and often handed down through generations, rarely buried with the deceased due to its thin metal plates’ susceptibility to decay. This makes the discovery of complete cuirasses rare, with only a few fragments found outside of Dendra, Thebes, and Nichoria.

In a wealthy warrior’s grave in Pylos, dating around 1550-1420 BC, thin bronze bands were found atop a wooden coffin. These bands, found with other artifacts like bronze jugs and boar’s teeth (possibly from a helmet), are believed to be remnants of the warrior’s armor.

Dimitrios Katsikis has created an impressive, fully operational bronze reconstruction of what might represent Late Bronze Age segmental armor. His website, HELLENIC ARMOURS, offers an exploration of this and other historical reconstructions, including a range of armors, helmets, shields, and weapons from the Bronze Age to the Byzantine era.

A Roman centurion helmet with red plume displayed on a table

Bronze Reconstructions and Achaean Armors

Katsikis Dimitrios has created a bronze reconstruction of a hypothetical segmental armor from the Late Bronze Age, and this reconstruction, along with other bronze and leather armors, corselets, helmets, shields, greaves, swords, axes, and more from the same period, can be found and explored on Katsikis Dimitrios’ impressive website page called “SEA PEOPLE ARMOUR.”

Several fragments of bronze band sheets similar to those mentioned above have been discovered in various Achaean tombs, as follows:

Two fragments of band sheets, one gilded and one curved, possibly part of a girdle, measuring 55mm and 60mm respectively, were found in Mycenae chamber tomb 58 and 69, dating back to LH IIIA/B1 (1350-1300 BC). These band sheets exhibit small holes around the edges;
Two fragments of band sheets measuring 60mm and 80mm respectively were discovered in Mycenae chamber tomb 15, also dating to LH IIIA/B1 (1350-1300 BC). These specimens also feature small holes around the edges;
Two fragments of copper trapezoidal plates, measuring 48mm x 35mm and 50mm x 42mm respectively, with holes around the edges and traces of quadruple linen or hemp threads that secured the copper to a linen backing, were found in Phaistos Crete “Tombe dei Nobili,” dating to LH IIB. From the same tomb, another copper plate fragment (295mm x 120mm) with small holes for sewing the metal to some sort of backing was discovered, likely belonging to a cuirass. These elements have been interpreted in various ways, including as belts, breast protections, or parts of “mitra.” Undoubtedly, these elements are connected to the ones found in the “Arsenal” in Kadmeia and likely relate to the “o-pa-wo-ta” (“things hung or attached around”) mentioned in some Linear B tablets from Pylos (see the dedicated section below);
In chamber graves 519 and 529 from Mycenae, which were originally dated to LH II but later reused in LH III, some fragments of bronze sheet have been uncovered. This confirms that the graves originally contained bronze armor, which was later destroyed or damaged during the further utilization of the graves;
In the Pylos palace, several small bronze fragments with barely visible embossed elements have been found. These are likely remnants of a cuirass or reinforcement elements of a corselet dating to around LH IIIB.

A possible representation of an early cuirass is depicted in a statue from Kannia near Gortina, dating back to before the destruction of Cretan palaces (around 1400-1450 BC). This statue portrays a warrior equipped with a rigid bell-shaped cuirass, featuring a lower trimmed edge, probably worn over a garment.

A notable example of Achaean armor is featured on a stone vessel shaped like a cuirass from a tomb in Knossos, dating to around 1350 BC. In this representation, the shoulder guards are clearly identified and appear to be related to those from Thebes.

Another possible representation of a cuirass with embossments at chest level can be found on a sculpture from the Achaean settlement in Maa-Palaeokastro, Cyprus, dated around 1200 BC. A potential representation of a cuirass with a lower protective band is shown on a seal from Cyprus dating to around 1300 BC.

Two bronze statuettes, one from Thermos and another from the sanctuary of the Ingot God at Enkomi, Cyprus, both dated to about 1200 BC, depict warriors who appear to be equipped with bronze cuirasses, featuring two embossments at chest level.

In iconography, there are several depictions that could be related to warriors wearing bronze armor. However, due to the stylized nature of many of these drawings, it can sometimes be challenging to interpret them accurately or identify the type of defense they represent, whether made of metal or non-metallic materials.

An Achaean-Cypriote seal from Cyprus, dating to the 15th-14th century BC, depicts two warriors on a chariot. The one wielding a bow seems to wear defensive armor with shoulder protections and a belt, while the chariot driver also sports a shoulder guard.

In a color pottery fragment from Mycenae, dated to LH IIIC, a warrior is depicted standing behind a horse, holding its reins. The linear design on the warrior’s body could represent a segmental armor made of perishable material reinforced with bronze plates;
In a krater fragment from Tiryns, dated to LH IIIC, a warrior appears to wear a bell-shaped cuirass with a decorated or reinforced lower abdomen protection “mitra.”;
Another fragment from Tiryns, also dated to LH IIIC, reveals the lower edge of a bell-shaped cuirass and a possible waist belt;
In a krater fragment from Leukandi, dated to LH IIIC, a warrior is depicted with a large body defense, possibly representing a bronze cuirass with relevant shoulder guards;
A charioteer portrayed in a pottery fragment from Tiryns, dated to LH IIIB2, seems to wear a rigid cuirass with two bosses at chest level;
On a small krater fragment from Tiryns, dated to LH IIIC, the lower part of a cuirass or the relevant protection belt, and a fringed “Kiton,” can be identified;
In another fragment, also from Tiryns and dated to LH IIIC, the lower belts of an embossed cuirass are likely represented. The vertical segmental motif resembles the type of band sheets found in Mycenae;
A body defense without shoulder guards appears to be worn by a warrior in a fresco fragment from Mycenae, dating to around 1350 BC;
An embossed defense is seemingly represented in a pottery fragment from Tiryns, dated to LH IIIB. In this case, a neck guard also appears to be present.

On an Achaean krater fragment from Cyprus, dated to 1400-1300 BC, a possible warrior with a cuirass or corselet featuring neck protections seems to be depicted.

On a krater fragment from Iolkos, dated to LH IIIC, a warrior wears a defense composed of reinforcement plates on the chest and the upper part of the corselet. In another fragment of the same krater from Iolkos, a warrior on the right side is also equipped with a similar type of defense. The soldier on the left sports a smaller and more comfortable-looking neck protection compared to the one found in “Dendra.”

Small neck protections are also worn by warriors depicted in paintings from Tiryns, dated to LH IIIC. These protections may not necessarily be related to a cuirass but could be additional elements worn with any kind of defense.

Similar neck protections are represented in some bronze statuettes of warriors from the island of Sardinia, Italy, dated around the 9th century BC. This type of neck protection, made of several bronze rings, dates back to 2000-1600 BC and has been found in Italy.

While the defense shown on the famous “warriors vase” and stele from Mycenae, dated to LH IIIC, is generally interpreted as non-metallic corselets, it’s not entirely ruled out that the warriors’ torsos were protected by metal cuirasses similar to the ones found in Thebes. Additional “poncho” style corselets, made of linen or with metallic reinforcements, appear to be present over the cuirass, and a “mitra” is likely hanging from the belt. Further hypotheses, details, and findings related to these representations are discussed in dedicated sections on corselets, scale armor, and Iliad armor.

In a pottery fragment dated to LH IIIC (about 1200-1100 BC) found in Voudeni near Patras, an Achaean warrior is likely wearing a bronze cuirass with two circular embossments at chest level. The central curved white motif could represent the shining effect of the metal armor, and in this case, the warrior may have also been equipped with a neck protection.

On two pottery fragments from Naxos, dated to LH IIC, a duel between two warriors is depicted. The warrior on the left may have worn a bronze cuirass and some form of banded protections on the lower body and legs, while the warrior on the right appears to be equipped with a tiara-like helmet.

Segmental armor or corselets made of bronze bands or perishable materials reinforced with bronze elements and shoulder protections, similar to those found in Achaean settlements, are likely worn by the “Sea Peoples” Sherden and Peleset, as depicted in the Medinet Habu Egyptian temple. (See also the page dedicated to the Sea People).

Armor Representations in Linear B Tablets

The discoveries at Dendra, Thebes, Mycenae, Phaistos, and Knossos offer support for the interpretation of armor-related ideograms found on several Linear B tablets. These tablets include those from Knossos (category SC) dating to LH IIIA (around 1350 BC) and 12 tablets from Pylos (category Sh) dated LH IIIB2 (around 1250 BC). The Pylos tablets feature the inscription “to-ra-ke,” leaving no doubt about the identity of the object in question.

The Knossos tablet Sk 206 also contains the inscription “to-ra,” along with a description of the armor consisting of two plates, two shoulder guards, and two “suspended elements.” Some other Knossos tablets (categories SK and K) also include the inscription “qe-ro2,” which appears to be related to a cuirass or, more likely, the two reinforcement bronze plates of a non-metallic corselet (see the dedicated corselet page).

These various armor ideograms from Knossos share common characteristics, including a trapezoidal form, varying numbers of horizontal lines, and curved lines resembling loops above the shoulders, clearly indicating the shoulder pieces, much like those found in Dendra and Thebes. The word “e-po-mi-jo” on Knossos tablets suggests that shoulder pieces were part of Achaean-Cretan armor, as further demonstrated by the stone vessel in the shape of a cuirass from Knossos. The horizontal lines may identify elements like cuirasses and belts of a Dendra or Thebes-style armor, as well as reinforcement bands and belts for segmental armor, similar to some findings in Thebes, Mycenae, and Phaistos. Additionally, the sign on the chest of the last ideogram in the image could represent the two triangular breast protections found in Thebes or the two small triangular breast protections of the Dendra armor. Unlike the Pylos tablets, the Knossos ideograms do not include a list of “o-pa-wo-ta” (things hung or attached around), indicating that the Knossos ideograms alone sufficiently represented the complete armor.

The Pylos tablet Sh 740 mentions five old panoplies (“pa-ra-jo”), consisting of armor and helmets, to be restored. Another tablet from Pylos, Sh 736, documents the restored equipment, now referred to as “ne-wo.”

A Linear B fragment from Tiryns, dated around 1300 BC, displays two armor ideograms similar to those from Knossos. In this case, horizontal lines indicate armor belts, and two curved lines represent shoulder guards. The ideogram also appears to depict neck protection and a conical helmet, closely resembling a “Dendra” style armor.

However, Pylos ideograms differ significantly from those in Knossos and Tiryns. They feature thin, straight lines extending from the sides of the upper part of the ideogram instead of curved lines above the shoulders. An additional upper part over the shoulder indicates neck protection, and a conical element suggests the presence of a helmet. While the general shape of the Pylos ideograms may resemble a Dendra-style armor, certain elements do not support this theory:

Instead of curved lines above the shoulders, Pylos ideograms feature thin, straight lines extending from the sides of the upper part;
The presence of an additional upper part over the shoulder indicates neck protection, and a conical element suggests the presence of a helmet.

The Pylos tablets often follow the ideogram with the number of “o-pa-wo-ta” (things hung or attached around). Some tablets list twenty large and ten small “accessories,” and in some cases, slightly higher numbers are recorded, such as twenty-two large and twelve small. These quantities are too high to be compatible with the elements of a Dendra-style armor. Moreover, the term “e-po-mi-jo” (shoulder guard) is not listed in the text or the ideogram in the Pylos tablets. In tablet Sh 736, the term “to-ra-ke” is also present, along with an indication of the helmet’s components—four or two “o-pa-wo-ta” and two cheek pieces (“pa-ra-wa-jo”) (see the dedicated page on late helmets). It is evident that, due to the meticulousness of the Achaeans in their record-keeping, the ideogram itself represents a complete armor with varying quantities of “accessories.” The ideogram images without shoulder guards but with the indication of sleeves resemble a non-metallic sleeved “Kiton” reinforced with several bronze “o-pa-wo-ta.” While the material is not specified, one tablet hints at linen.

Based on the Pylos ideograms, it is plausible to envision the appearance of a perishable material armor or corselet reinforced with 30 or 34 “o-pa-wo-ta,” complete with neck protection. The bronze reinforcement elements are obviously based on the several plates or strips found in Thebes, Mycenae, Nichoria, and Phaistos.

Bronze Cuirasses in Central Europe

A knight in red tunic holding a sword and shield poses against a white wall

Several noteworthy cuirasses have been discovered in Slovakia, Hungary, and Italy, garnering attention due to their proximity to the Achaean mainland and their dating to the same time period as the Greek Bronze Age civilization, either before or after the collapse of the palace system.

A fully intact and well-preserved bronze cuirass was recovered from the Danube near Pilismarot, Hungary, dating back to approximately 1300-1100 BC. Remarkably, this cuirass bears evidence of damage incurred during combat;
Numerous fragments of a sheet bronze cuirass adorned with decorative bosses and rivets in the breast area, featuring a star motif, were unearthed in Caka Okr, Levice, Slovakia, dating to around 1250 BC;
A fragment of the breastplate of a cuirass from Ducovè Okv. Trencin, Slovakia, also dated to around 1250 BC, displays the same star motif on its chest area. This star motif closely resembles the one found on an Achaean bronze disk, possibly a part of a corselet, discovered in a warrior’s grave in Pylos, dating to around 1500-1420 BC. This connection supports the hypothesis of an Aegean origin for some of Slovakia’s late Bronze Age cuirasses;
A fragmentary cuirass from Cierna nad Tisou, Slovakia, dated from 1050 to 950 BC, preserves the majority of the backplate and a small portion of the breastplate. This cuirass, though plain in design, features ridges parallel to the edges;
Two fragments dating back to the 12th century BC belong to a cuirass plate from Szentgalosker, Hungary, embellished with applied bronze sheets;
Fragments of cuirass plates with ridges along the rolled edges were discovered in Nadap, Hungary, and date to around 1250 BC;
Fragments of cuirass plates from Farkasgypu Bakony, Hungary, also date to around 1250 BC;
Several fragments of a cuirass from Pila del Bracon, Nogara, Italy, have been dated to around 1250 BC.

While these examples are highly fragmented, making it challenging to reconstruct them as “bell-shaped” cuirasses, the best-preserved one exhibits a primarily cylindrical shape with a slightly outward-turning lower portion. Apart from the shape, the resemblance to the Achaean cuirasses discovered thus far is evident in the plain surface, secure fastening with nails on the left side, and the presence of rolled edges.

Conclusion

Bronze armor had a significant and continuous presence in the Aegean Bronze Age world, spanning from the 15th century BC to the decline of the Achaean civilization. Debates over the effectiveness of bronze cuirasses compared to linen or leather corselets have been challenged by evidence. Bronze cuirasses were reinforced with inner linen cloth linings, improving their protective capabilities. These findings are associated with two primary types of Achaean bronze armor: a rigid two-plate breast cuirass with optional additional protections, and a non-metallic corselet adorned with bronze elements (“o-pa-wo-ta”) for enhanced protection. This flexible and comfortable defense allowed for the attachment of supplementary elements like shoulder guards, neck protection, and belts.

The “Chariots tablets” from Knossos offer insights into the equipment provided by the palace administration. Warriors received only the components they lacked to complete their gear, be it cuirasses, horses, or armor elements like “o-pa-wo-ta,” “qe-ro2,” or “e-po-mi-jo.” In some cases, warriors already possessed these supplementary elements. The Linear B term “a-ki-re-u,” possibly linked to Achilles, denotes individuals “equipped with their own defense.” This reveals the integration of Achaean armor with a hierarchical state centered around the palace. The palace authority supplied select individuals, likely part of a military elite, with armor and equipment, fostering loyalty and support for the centripetal system.